1

Ancient origins

Image: Ameer Basheer

The Grand Canyon isn’t just old—it’s millions of years older than previously thought. Some rock layers at the bottom date back 1.8 billion years, nearly half the age of Earth itself. While the canyon itself is around 5 to 6 million years old, recent studies suggest parts of it began forming 70 million years ago—during the dinosaur era.

2

Once an ocean floor

Image: Yannis Papanastasopoulos

Long before it was a canyon, this region sat beneath an ancient sea. The Kaibab Limestone, the canyon’s top layer, formed from marine fossils left behind as the waters receded 270 million years ago. The presence of coral, shellfish, and even shark fossils proves the area was once home to a thriving ocean ecosystem.

3

Carved by more than water

Image: Wolfgang Hasselmann

While the Colorado River played a huge role in shaping the canyon, other forces were at work. Volcanic activity, tectonic uplift, and even landslides helped carve out its immense depths. Lava flows from nearby volcanoes poured into the canyon, creating layers of rock that tell the story of violent geological change.

4

The earliest human inhabitants

Image: Russ McCabe

Humans have lived near the Grand Canyon for at least 12,000 years. The earliest known inhabitants were Paleo-Indians, who left behind stone tools and spear points. Later, the Ancestral Puebloans built cliff dwellings and left behind intricate pottery, proving that this seemingly inhospitable land was once home to thriving communities.

5

First European encounter

Image: Antoine Vidal de La Blache

Spanish explorer García López de Cárdenas was the first European to lay eyes on the canyon in 1540. Sent by Francisco Vázquez de Coronado in search of legendary cities of gold, he and his men were shocked by its vastness. They tried to climb down for water but failed, unable to comprehend its sheer scale.

6

Named a national monument

Image: Benjamin Cutting

President Theodore Roosevelt designated the Grand Canyon a national monument in 1908, calling it a place "every American should see." He was instrumental in protecting it from commercial exploitation, setting the stage for its eventual National Park status in 1919.

7

Hidden caves

Image: Russ McCabe

The Grand Canyon contains over 1,000 caves, but fewer than 400 have been explored. Some remain completely untouched, preserving prehistoric fossils and evidence of ancient human life. Today, only one cave is open to the public—Grand Canyon Caverns, located nearby in Arizona.

8

Phantom ranch

Image: Annie Spratt

Built in the 1920s, Phantom Ranch remains one of the most isolated lodges in America. Located at the bottom of the canyon, it’s only accessible by hiking, mule ride, or rafting. Due to high demand, reservations are awarded through a lottery system.

9

America’s first canyon explorer

Image: Alex Moliski

John Wesley Powell led the first recorded expedition through the Grand Canyon in 1869. With one arm lost in the Civil War, he braved the Colorado River’s treacherous rapids in wooden boats. His journey mapped the canyon’s uncharted territory, proving it wasn’t an impassable wasteland but a geological treasure trove.

10

Forgotten civilizations?

Image: Otacilio Maia

In the 1930s, explorer Emery Kolb uncovered a sealed cave in the canyon containing ancient artifacts and human remains. Some speculated it belonged to a lost civilization, but archaeologists determined it was a prehistoric Native American site. The canyon still holds thousands of undiscovered archaeological sites, adding to its mystery and historical significance.

1

Spider-Man 3 (2007)

Image: Dante Muñoz

Tobey Maguire’s Spider-Man had been one of the most successful hits of the 2000s . That’s why, when Spider-Man 3 (2007) began production in 2005, it was given the highest budget of any movie in history at the time: around $258 million.

If you’ve seen this movie, you might have guessed that the biggest portion of the budget went into special effects for its three different villains. The New Goblin, Venom, and Sandman were three separate challenges for the visual effects team, particularly Sandman , played by Thomas Haden Church. Groundbreaking technology had to be developed to animate explosive sand fists and parting bodies of sand, making the character’s action scenes cost millions of dollars each.

2

Titanic (1997)

Image: Derek Oyen

To begin with, building the full-scale ship model and massive water tank for Titanic (1997) cost over $150 million. Director James Cameron was very particular about authenticity, so the ship’s interior design was meticulously designed to match that of the original Titanic. At the time, it was also the most expensive movie ever made. But one might argue it was all worth it.

The CGI, stunts, and practical effects used for replicating the sinking sequence were especially costly. Bear in mind that Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet were already known young talents by the time they were cast for this movie, so they took a small share of the fortune—around $5 million between them. Famously, though, James Cameron forfeited his paycheck to keep the movie under budget, much like Jack climbing down from the door to keep Rose afloat. It worked out in the end because he earned $97 million from backend profits.

3

Avengers: Infinity War (2018)

Image: André Volkmann

Balancing the stories of all of these superheroes was just as challenging as paying all the corresponding actors. Avengers: Infinity War (2018) had an estimated budget of almost $400 million. Who could forget the battle scenes filled with as many timeless superheroes as A-list actors? Reportedly, Robert Downey Jr. alone took home around $75 million after backend deals.

This two-hour-and-a-half movie had over 2,500 visual effects shots, which included the destruction of a planet and a ship, as well as an epic battle in the fictional Wakanda . Not to mention the advanced motion-capture technology required for Josh Brolin’s portrayal of Thanos, the villain of the film.

4

Avengers: Endgame (2019)

Image: Igor Bumba

When Avengers: Infinity War was released, it became the highest-grossing superhero film in history, amassing over $2 billion at the box office. But that title lasted it around a year, until its sister sequel Avengers: Endgame (2019) surpassed it. The sequel cost roughly the same as the previous installment but came just shy of earning $3 billion .

Just like the previous ones, this Avengers installment had a star-studded cast that included Scarlett Johansson, Chris Evans, and Chris Hemsworth. A feast of 3 hours worth of cameos, the movie ended with a climactic final battle scene, where almost every hero from the Marvel Cinematic Universe assembled. Making this movie involved hundreds of extras, an enormous amount of CGI, masterful choreography, and an unprecedented skill for star scheduling .

5

Pirates of the Caribbean: At World’s End (2007)

Image: cottonbro studio

Pirates of the Caribbean: At World’s End had a budget of around $300 million, making it one of the most expensive films ever at the time of its 2007 release. Whoever watched this film will remember a waterfall at the edge of the world or a massive final battle between two ships over a maelstrom. Those takes relied heavily on CGI, but not entirely. As with previous productions in the franchise, filming required large-scale water sets and multiple ships to be built. The cost of both practical and visual effects for these scenes was astronomical.

Admittedly, a significant portion of the budget went to the ensemble cast, particularly Johnny Depp, who received a notable pay bump following the massive success of the first two films. Keith Richards , the Rolling Stones guitarist, was also famously featured, adding to the film’s star power.

6

Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015)

Image: Deepak Rastogi

Surprise! The Avengers movie with the most colossal budget was the least liked of the four. It sometimes puzzles fans to learn that it cost $365 million in 2015, which, adjusted for inflation, would be over $430 million today.

Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) had to use massive amounts of CGI to create cinematic takes on the levitating fictional city of Sokovia. Destruction, flying characters, drones, and explosions contributed significantly to the costs. More importantly, filming on location and flying so many celebrities around the globe added to the expense. This movie showed scenes filmed all over the world, including the U.S., South Africa, Italy, South Korea, and England.

7

Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (2019)

Image: LJ

Lightsaber battles have never been cheap. Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (2019) had a reported production budget of around $275 million. It was the third Star Wars movie produced by Disney, and while the budget had decreased compared to the previous installments, it was still a financial success.

The final battle sequence on the Sith planet Exegol required a fortune, but it needed to: as it served as the climax of Disney’s trilogy. Special effects even included the scenes of characters like General Leia, played by the late Carrie Fisher . The film faced the unique challenge of incorporating footage of Fisher filmed for previous Star Wars movies after her passing in 2016.

8

Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2011)

Image: Pixabay

Even though the 4th installment of the Pirates franchise had relatively low reviews, it became the second film in the saga to surpass a billion dollars in box office revenue. Released in 2011, Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides had a staggering budget of $379 million.

Mermaids, zombies, splitting ships, boats on fire, and a Fountain of Youth all required the coordination of several visual effects teams. The salaries of new stars like Penélope Cruz , along with filming locations across Hawaii, the UK, California, and Puerto Rico, added to the costs. Also, this was the first movie in the franchise to be shot for 3D screenings .

9

Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom (2018)

Image: Nick Wehrli

A movie that revolves around dinosaurs fleeing from a volcanic eruption , Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom (2018), received an estimated budget of around $432 million. How are dinosaurs created? Much like the earlier films of the saga, this one used a mix of CGI and animatronics , especially for the more up-close, intimate scenes involving Velociraptors and an Indoraptor.

For the dinosaur auction scene, a whole large-scale set was built. Filming also took place in Hawaii, England, and Spain. The stars of the Jurassic World trilogy, Chris Pratt and Bryce Dallas Howard, reportedly earned around $10 million each.

10

Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015)

Image: Rod Long

When Disney acquired the rights to produce movies from Lucasfilm , it proceeded to give the first installment of their Star Wars reboot the biggest budget it had ever given. That was over $447 million in 2015.

With J.J. Abrams directing a Star Wars movie after so long, he could indulge in creating a full-size Millennium Falcon , animatronic creatures, and remote-controlled puppetry. The Starkiller Base destruction sequence was one of the most expensive scenes. Not to mention that the legendary face of Star Wars , Mark Hamill, had a very short cameo at the end of this movie; that one-minute feature alone earned him $3 million .

1

Potato chips

Back in 1853, a cranky diner in Saratoga Springs, New York, complained that his fries were too thick . Irritated, Chef George Crum sliced them paper-thin and fried them crisp to prove a point . To everyone’s surprise, the customer loved them.

What began as a moment of frustration turned into America’s favorite salty snack, inspiring an entire industry of chips and flavors.

2

Popsicles

In 1905, 11-year-old San Francisco native Frank Epperson accidentally left a cup of soda powder and water outside overnight, with a stick still in it. The next morning, it had frozen solid in the chilly air .

Epperson dubbed it the "Epsicle," which was later renamed the Popsicle. That childhood experiment became one of the most enduring summer treats.

3

Chocolate chip cookies

Ruth Wakefield ran out of baker’s chocolate when she was making traditional chocolate cookies at her Massachusetts inn, the Toll House, in the 1930s. She chopped up Nestlé chocolate snack bars instead . She expected them to melt evenly into the dough, but they stayed in chunks.

The warm, gooey results became an instant hit with her guests. Nestlé soon partnered with her to print the recipe on chocolate bar wrappers, and the rest is history!

4

Corn flakes

In 1898, the Kellogg brothers accidentally left cooked wheat, unprocessed wheat kernels simmered until tender, sitting out overnight at their Michigan sanitarium, where they promoted a healthy living based on vegetarianism, exercise, sunlight, and strict hygiene. By morning, it had gone stale, but when they rolled and baked it, the flakes came out crisp and tasty .

That happy mistake inspired a new breakfast idea: simple, wholesome, and ready to pour.

5

Coca-Cola

In one of the most profitable blunders of all time, Atlanta pharmacist John Pemberton was mixing a headache tonic in 1886 when he mistakenly blended his syrup with carbonated water instead of plain water .

Finding the result quite tasty, Pemberton opened a local soda fountain and found immediate success.

6

Cheeseburgers

In the 1920s, a teenage cook in Pasadena accidentally dropped a slice of cheese onto a sizzling hamburger . Instead of tossing it out, he served it to the customer.

The melted topping added a rich, savory twist that caught on fast. Soon, diners across America began adding cheese to burgers, helping to spread this classic.

7

Hard pretzels

One Pennsylvania baker in the 1800s left his soft pretzels in the oven too long, burning them to a deep brown . Expecting a disaster, he tried one and loved the unexpected crunch.

That overbaked batch became the first hard pretzel. The crispy, salty snack soon gained fans nationwide.

8

Slurpees

In the 1950s, a Kansas soda shop’s cooler broke down, freezing its drinks halfway . Instead of throwing them out, the owner sold the icy concoctions to curious customers.

They loved the slushy texture so much that he built a machine to reproduce it. The Icee — and later the Slurpee — turned an equipment failure into an omnipresent machine at every 7-Eleven.

9

Tortilla chips

In 1940s Los Angeles, a tortilla factory ended up with piles of leftover tortillas. Rather than waste them, workers cut them into triangles and fried them up .

The crunchy bites were a surprise hit. What started as a practical way to use scraps soon became a nationwide snack.

10

Tootsie Rolls

Crafty candy maker Leo Hirschfeld wanted to stretch his chocolate supply in 1896, so he experimented by blending in other ingredients such as sugar, corn syrup, and condensed skim milk . The texture turned chewy instead of smooth, but the flavor was rich and lasting.

He named it after his daughter’s nickname, "Tootsie." His thrift-born invention became a candy classic.

11

Reese’s Peanut Butter Cups

Back in 1928, a former Hershey employee, H.B. Reese, was tinkering with leftover chocolate at home when he combined it with sweetened peanut butter . The unexpected pairing turned out to be a great-tasting treat.

His homemade experiment evolved into a small business, and later became a candy legend when Hershey acquired the brand.

12

Fudge

According to the popular story, a batch of caramel didn’t heat properly one night , and the cook sighed that it had been "fudged." The softer texture, however, turned out wonderfully creamy.

That tasty error spread quickly through American kitchens and college towns, becoming the classic dessert that it is today.